Talking about casinos online, slot games are one of them. You can play this fun, interesting, as well as simple game online. However, you have to sign in first. The first, you have to make the free account that provided by the central web provider. Then, you will fill the requirement completely. Afterward, you choose the type of payments you desire. The last, central web provider will confirm to your email address. It means that you can start to play slot game online freely. If you are beginner, you should not to be worry because slot game is a game of chance, so you can play it without any special strategies.

Actually, it comes for you the new design for your tutoring. It is tutornex which will give you the online of personal tutoring. Of course, it is the cheapest cost because you only need to sit down in front of your computer to get the personal tutoring. For the given matters, you will be given with all matters you need in Algebra, which is including of Algebra 1 and Algebra 2. Then, it also gives you the matters of the subject including of Algebra 1 Help, Algebra 2 help, Algebra 1 Answers and Algebra 2 Answers. Surely, it will help you very much in solving your problem with Algebra. Tutornex will give you the best solution for your problem through the personal tutoring. Of course, it will be the best choice for you because you will be able to get the tutoring whenever and wherever you are.

TutorVista is your best solution to overcome this your weaknesess generally in math and specifically in statistic or other. in TutorVista is available tutoring online. You will guide to understand statistic and basic concept of it. In other hand, you also get statistics tutor online. Hence, it will be very effective to you to undersand fast because there is no other student that can break your concentration. You will get real tutoring between you and tutor. You just stay in your home and your tutor will start the lesson until you understand. You should not be affraid, ask everything, which you don’t understand. In other word, your tutor will give you any suggestions and problem solving of statistic.

In cinclusion, your statistics problems that you face will be over. With this effective tutoring online you can get the different of understanding as clear as possible, so you can imagine how effective TutorVista is to your improvement afte you take it.

When we think of astronomy, we may be inclined to think that it only deals with scientists and astronomers looking up at objects in space with a telescope. However, there is far more to astronomy than simply looking at objects in space. In this article, we will look into the science of astronomy.

The countdown has started, and astronauts in are preparing for a journey that will take them to our Moon. The button is pressed and the space shuttle begins on its assent.

At this point, we may start to imagine that astronomy is not just about telescopes and taking pictures of objects in space. As that space shuttle begins to go, it needs fuel to go. And here we find our first science – chemistry.

The mixture of fuel which includes oxygen is one which needs top chemists to figure out what is needed to safely propel and bring back those astronauts. There is a need for mathematicians to figure out with the weight and all the other information and data, how much fuel is necessary to make that space shuttle go.

But, what about the space shuttle? We have forgotten about the engineers that had to make up this fine specimen of engineering. What materials they would have needed to be made out of. And what about those who had to make those parts?

We can forget that there is a lot to astronomy today, and that a lot of different sciences had to go into making the space shuttle do the famous Neil Armstrong landing on the Moon. But, how did we get Neil Armstrong onto the Moon?

Space has no oxygen, and any human that tries to go into it, would die instantly! Biologists had to figure out how this was all possible. It required the science of biology to figure out how to keep astronauts alive all that time, from food, to other human essentials.

We have just looked at the space shuttle and have uncovered many different branches of the sciences that go into making a space shuttle, and its expeditions to be successful.

We have almost forgotten that it needed creative people who were not necessarily scientists. For example, the artists who had to make up designs for certain things which are necessary in the beginning, before the space shuttle was even made.

The sciences in astronomy also have other aspects such as those required to make radio telescopes possible. The computer technicians, programmers, and even the electronics professionals that have to possibly make up the equipment for the telescope.

As we can see there are many different areas that go into making astronomy what it is today. There is more to astronomy than telescopes. And there is more to astronomy than simply looking out into space. The field of astronomy helps in knowing when brownouts may occur on Earth, and other things about Earth which we never knew before.

If interstellar travel requires traveling at light speed, the situation is not promising. The biggest hurdles against such travel are g-forces and time. G-forces are the force exerted on your body when undergoing high accelerations. Accelerating to the speed of light would have to be done gradually or the body would be torn apart. It would take about 2 ½ months to get to just half the speed of light! This explains the need for inertial dampers—the cosmic shock absorbers created by the writers of Star Trek. Inertial dampers somehow cancel out the force responding to the accelerating force. While this solves the problem for script writers, there is no such tool in the real world of physics.

Which takes us to the problem of time in space travel. Theoretically, two things happen when objects travel at the speed of light. First, time becomes relative and “slows down” for the objects in motion. A ten year journey on a star craft would correspond to 25,000 earth years—making any communication impossible. In addition to this, objects get heavier the faster they travel. When approaching the speed of light they become infinitely heavy, which is why only massless objects, like waves, can travel at such speeds.

Hence, space travel at light speed or faster is probably not feasible; however, space travel could still become reality. Imagine you are a microscopic mite on a flat piece of paper. Your world would seem to be flat; and indeed, all experimentation on your immediate environment would lead you to that conclusion. If your world was flat, the fastest way to get from your position to a point at the other end of the page would be a straight line. However, if the page was to bend, and you could drill a hole through the page, you would find a shortcut. This is the idea behind wormholes. Unfortunately, geometric equations show wormholes to be impossibly unstable. Before they could be used as viable bridges to new star systems or galaxies, one would have to find a way to keep them from pinching off the moment a speck of matter entered its throat. Still, wormholes are our greatest hope for space travel. While wormholes are still only hypothetical (there is no experimental evidence for them), they are great theoretical fun, and valid solutions of the Einstein equations. It’s no wonder that they are a topic of interest among scientists and writers science fiction alike.

In 1961, John F. Kennedy famously beckoned the American people to journey into space and reach the moon by decade’s end. Both challenged and encouraged by our young president’s infectious and visionary attitude – the country heeded his call.

It was a monumental accomplishment that galvanized the nation’s fascination with science and technology and inspired the creation of an educational video series known as the Science Screen Report.
Developed to enhance curriculums throughout our nation’s schools by stimulating students curiosity in science, it’s no coincidence that as it approaches its 40th anniversary, the Science Screen Report is more relevant than ever.

“Students are far more immersed in their studies when they can experience the world beyond the written pages of their textbooks and see it live, in full color and in three dimensions,” says Cleveland Middle School Librarian, Grace M. Dyrek.

Apparently many educators across the nation agree. When the Science Screen Report made its debut in 1970, less than 100 schools nationally were utilizing its services. Today nearly four decades later, more than 10,000 school districts use the series as an essential tool to help promote science as an invaluable subject.

“We cannot do enough to engage students in science. The sciences have never been more important to society than they are now,” says Scott Forman, President of Allegro Productions whose company produces the series from Palm Beach County, Florida. That advocacy is also shared by President Obama who stated, “Today more than ever before, science holds the key to our survival as a planet and our prosperity as a nation.” These are high stakes that will require a much deeper commitment to science than previously shown by U.S. schools, students and parents.

According to the Washington Post, science scores from the 2006 Program for International Student Assessment – a test given every three years – showed that U.S. 15 year-olds trailed their peers from many industrialized countries. It’s a trend that’s mirrored in American middle schools as well.

To help close and overcome that gap, Science Screen Report and its companion series, Science Screen Report For Kids, is designed to get students engrossed in science as early as possible – science is not a subject to simply just pass. “We’re trying to get kids interested in careers in science; show them it can be challenging, rewarding and full of opportunity,” adds Forman whose company produces eight programs per school year for each series.

Roughly 15 minutes in length and produced to directly address National Science Standards and Science Literacy Benchmarks, both series cover a variety of topics ranging from chemistry to the environment to physics, biology, medicine, ecology, engineering, space science, energy and oceanography.

Visually captivating to capture the attention and imagination of today’s technologically advanced kids, each Science Screen Report is accompanied by a thoroughly researched teacher guide. Prepared by a committee of educators, the guides provide background information, suggestions for critical thought, a glossary, career possibilities, resource and reference material, and tend to provoke lively classrooms discussions regarding the featured subjects.

Having worked for decades with the National Science Foundation’s Presidential Awards for Excellence in Mathematics and Science Teaching, the Science Screen Report continues to receive accolades. Series materials have also been used in the Smithsonian Institute’s Teacher Resource Center, and are listed in the resource guides of the Eisenhower National Clearinghouse, the U.S. Department of Energy, the U.S. Department of Education, and many other state and local agencies.

Although delivered to schools using the latest technology such as video streaming, supporters of the Science Screen Report face an age-old problem – funding. The series which augments an existing school’s curriculum is often subject to budget cuts. Currently it’s sponsored by hundreds of companies that enable thousands of school districts around the country to receive the program for free. Program sponsors receive a PBS type opening and closing message that appears at the beginning and end of every program that is viewed in the classroom.

Yet in this turbulent economy where cutbacks are the norm, Forman is optimistic that corporations will continue to see the value that Science Screen Report brings to the classroom. It’s an ideal situation; schools receive the award winning content at no cost, and corporations have an appropriate method for reaching their future employees and customers. It’s a logical way for these companies to invest in their own communities.

A small investment that Forman hopes will continue to provide American students and teachers with the tools they need to regain their place at the forefront of science and technology, and remain there for generations to come.

The phrase most often used by evolutionists is probably “billions and billions of years:” “life evolved over billions and billions of years,” “the solar system developed over billions and billions of years,” “the universe has been expanding for billions and billions of years.” It almost seems as if these accounts of the evolution of our universe are intended to keep people from questioning unverifiable statements. That is, how do you go about disproving what allegedly happened so long ago? It’s quite difficult to construct a planet in a laboratory and let it lie around for billions and billions of years to prove that life will not create itself. Unless, of course, you have a long lease.

If your lease expires within the next four and a half billion years, the following may be of interest to you:

• In 1977 two scientists, in search of hot water spewing from the ocean floors, crammed into a small research submarine named ALVIN and descended to the bottom of the ocean near the Galapagos Islands. Finding the first hydrothermal vent, an opening where water heated by earth’s molten interior is released into the ocean, was not nearly as fascinating as what they discovered by accident — the vent was surrounded by animals never seen before. Closest to the vent, in the midst of water which sometimes exceeds 450 degrees Fahrenheit, were tube worms, some of which were up to eight feet long.

For any living creature to thrive this deep in the ocean and in such scalding water was mind boggling enough. But there was more. Most animals need sunlight to survive; this part of the ocean gets no sunlight whatsoever.

Then, as if to laugh in the face of what’s considered “normal” for biological life forms, these tube worms had no eyes, mouth, or intestinal tract. There may not be much to see in the dark, but how did these creatures eat or digest food?

It took scientists years to figure out how tube worms receive their nourishment. Without getting too involved with the details, these tube worms have a symbiotic relationship with bacteria which grow in profuse quantities near the underwater vent. The bacteria find their way into the tube worms, literally between their cells. The tube worms receive nutrition from the bacteria, and the bacteria in turn receive some vital functions from the tube worm.

If you think this sounds too bizarre, I don’t blame you. Such creatures really do exist. And you haven’t heard the most astonishing aspect of these creatures.

An additional factor in the area around the vent makes it an even more hostile environment than described above (if you can imagine that). The bacteria on which the tube worms depend, thrive on a chemical called hydrogen sulphide, which is found in the water coming from the hot vent. To most higher animals, hydrogen sulphide is as poisonous as cyanide!

We’ve just described a world which before its discovery was hard to imagine and certainly impossible to predict. The hostile environment in which the tube worms and their life-sustaining bacteria exist is truly “out of this world.” It makes one wonder if biological life forms are limited or restricted in any way whatsoever to any kind of environment.

• Since 1977, several more vents have been discovered on the ocean floors. Besides tube worms, other exotic animals have been found thriving in the immediate vicinity of the vents — pink fish, snails, shrimp, sulphur-yellow mussels, and foot-long clams. Similar animal populations have since been discovered in waters only a few degrees cooler than freezing. Scientists have since found quite a few totally new forms of life and species.

In addition to the adverse conditions under which these creatures live, life apparently can also survive in a wide range of temperatures.

• Cacti are known to survive the most difficult and unusual climates. Their ability to sustain themselves in areas of little rainfall, hot dry winds, low humidity, strong sunlight, and extreme fluctuations in temperature is nothing short of phenomenal. It’s almost as if the physical structures of these plants, which help conserve the little water they receive and shed some of the excess sunlight, were designed by someone. Some cacti can survive internal temperatures of near 145 degrees Fahrenheit. Most plants haven’t got a chance where some cacti prosper.
• Lichens, a combination of fungus and algae, have been found thriving in an area of Antarctica where temperatures sometimes get colder than 70 degrees below zero Fahrenheit. As far as hostile environments go, this seems to be the extreme opposite of deep, dark, hot waters.
• There are insects in the Antarctic which produce natural “antifreeze” to keep from freezing at lower temperatures. Another insect in the Antarctic produces anti-antifreeze. When temperatures get so low that other insects freeze to death, this natural compound allows this insect to freeze gradually. When temperatures get warmer, the insect thaws and lives on.
• Bacteria have been found growing an amazing 25 feet underground. For life to survive such depths is incredible, to say the least.
• There are animals and insects which carry venom strong enough to cause disease and death in other living organisms, yet these carrying organisms are unaffected by the venom. Mosquitoes spread yellow fever, malaria, dengue, and encephalitis to animals thousands of times their size. But no mosquitoes have been known to die of these diseases. Snakes, too, discharge venom which kill other animals, yet they themselves are unaffected by the poisons they carry.
• Earth now has millions of species of plants and animals. The sheer number of species is overwhelming. The precise number of living organisms is nothing short of mind boggling. And the diversity of these creatures — from such monstrosities as whales right down to microscopic life forms such as the amoeba — is probably beyond the imagination of even Steven Spielberg.

IT IS BELIEVED . . .

In the course of earth’s history, about a half billion animal species have been in existence. That’s a half billion before you even bring plant life into the picture.

IT IS ALLEGED . . .

The sun, earth, and the other planets in our solar system, according to scientists, were formed about four and a half billion years ago. It is further alleged that the most primitive forms of life already appeared on earth about three billion years ago. Huge creatures such as dinosaurs roamed our planet as far back as 200 million years ago. They ruled for an enormously long period of over 100 million years. Finally, humans appeared about two to three million years ago. That is, something as complex as the human brain has allegedly been around for at least a staggering two million years. An optical instrument as sophisticated as the eye (of the non-human variety) has been around even longer.

VERIFICATION

Now, how does one verify how all these living organisms came into existence? That is, if you can’t build your own planet and cultivate it for billions of years, what’s the next best thing? Finding a planet in outer space which has been around for as long as earth? No, that’s not the next best thing. That’s even better.

Why?

Because the science of planetary evolution, if you can call it that, is far from an exact science, to say the least. After many years, scientists still question the generally accepted view of the composition of earth’s atmosphere in that alleged period of three and a half billion years ago. For a long time scientists believed that earth’s primordial atmosphere contained little or no oxygen. Then, some studies suggested that earth’s atmosphere may have contained one million times more oxygen than previously believed, and the ultraviolet rays of the sun may have pounded earth at levels thousands of times higher than today.

Whether the new interpretations make any more sense than the old assumptions is irrelevant. What is relevant here is that laboratory simulations and scientific deductions of primordial conditions on earth are obviously based on much guess work and unverifiable assumptions. So why resort to such vagrant concoctions when a real “living” planet tells the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth?

LIFE ON MARS

Two Viking spacecraft landed on Mars as early as the summer of 1976. Viking 1 landed in the Chryse Planitia region and Viking 2 landed in the Utopia Planitia region. One goal of these missions was to find life or evidence of life on Mars. The spacecraft spent months analyzing the Martian soil and atmosphere, with no luck. More recent spacecraft on Mars produced the same results — no life on Mars. Not a trace of past or present life was found. No dinosaurs. No microorganisms. No carcasses. No bones. No fossils. Absolutely nothing. It’s become obvious to scientists that for evidence of life to be found on Mars, they’d have to send KFC up there to pluck their chickens.

Of the planets we’ve explored to date, Mars seems to resemble earth more closely than any other planet does. If life were to have existed anywhere else in our solar system, Mars would probably have been the place. But no trace of life has been discovered on Mars, or any other planet, for that matter.

FAVORITISM IN NATURE

Now take what is known, what is “believed,” and what is “alleged,” about earth and compare it to what is known about Mars. What do you get? Verification of theories? No. You get inexplicable contradictions! We live on a planet where life proliferates in virtually every nook and cranny. You’d be hard pressed to find a place on earth where there is no life whatsoever. And the environment doesn’t seem to matter either. Life on earth thrives under the most adverse conditions.

Yet, when we look at a planet right next to us in space, what do we find? We find a barren world with no trace of life ever having existed. How’s that possible?

Are we to believe that this god called evolution, who has given earth such a sophisticated organ as the human brain as far back as two million years ago, has to this date not managed to put forth on Mars so much as a dumb ass? Are we to believe that the same evolution which has given earth living creatures the size of dinosaurs 200 million years ago has in a staggering four and a half billion years not given Mars even simple one-celled organisms? Are we to believe that this glorious evolution which has to this date given earth an astronomical total of literally millions upon millions of plant and animal species has in the same period not given Mars even one species of plant or animal?

Sure the Martian environment is hostile. But then, here on earth, two miles down at the bottom of the ocean near vents which spew hot water mixed with hydrogen sulphide in total darkness is not exactly my idea of a summer vacation spot, either — it’s about as hostile as an environment can get! But life thrives there in complete defiance of what are normally considered ecological adversities.

Antarctica is also a hostile environment. So is 25 feet underground. So is the desert. Furthermore, in that alleged period of three and a half billion years ago, the entire earth, according to scientists, was hostile. Life on earth allegedly began in an environment which would be hostile to many of today’s life forms. And many of today’s life forms live in conditions which would have been intolerable to the organisms which allegedly brought life into existence billions of years ago. But life on earth thrives in spite of it all.

Life on earth goes even a step further. Some organisms do not simply thrive in adverse conditions, they actually become immune to conditions which are designed to kill them. Many bacteria become resistant to antibiotics as a result of being overexposed to the very drugs which have killed them in the past. In some cases, bacteria even transfer this resistance to other bacteria which have not had such exposure to the drugs.

There is a species of South American bee which has become immune to DDT. The bees can carry doses hundreds of times the amount needed to kill other bees without suffering ill effects. Some mosquitoes are also immune to DDT.

So, you see, life on earth is as potent as it is diversified. It pushes forward, overcoming many seemingly insurmountable obstacles, and sometimes in spite of these obstacles. Looking at the diversity of conditions under which life on earth thrives, looking at the life forms which have learned to fight environmental hazards and man-made poisons, it’s hard to imagine life on earth ever being completely wiped out by any kind of disaster, natural or manmade. But somehow, life on Mars has either been completely wiped out — and the telltale traces mysteriously hidden — or something prevented life from coming into existence. How do you account for the complete absence of any trace of life on Mars? Does evolution have favorites? It is totally inconceivable that something as powerful and as diversified as life has not left its mark on Mars. Where is all the evidence of an evolutionary process? If not currently living creatures, at least bones and fossils.

Some find it difficult to explain. But is it really difficult to explain? Maybe some people are just looking for the wrong explanations. Maybe they’re looking for preconceived explanations and discounting the facts. The fact is there is no sign of life or evolution on Mars.

NEW LIFE FORMS

Let’s take this one step further. Who made the life forms on earth the standard for life? That is, why does life have to have anything to do with oxygen, carbon dioxide, or even carbon compounds? As accidentally as life allegedly formed of what was available on earth, life could have formed of what ever happened to be available elsewhere in space. After all, we’re still having problems grasping the limits to which biological life can go — as is acutely demonstrated by tube worms and other unusual biological life forms — we’re certainly not close to understanding consciousness and intellect on a scientific level. We may know that consciousness and intellect “attach” themselves to certain biological systems, but we haven’t the foggiest clue as to how or why; no scientist has yet shown any physical relationship between a biological system and the psyche. So why isn’t there life on the moon? That’s right, the moon’s own version of “biological” life. Perhaps intelligent creatures made up of lunar soil which receive their nourishment through cosmic rays?

And what about Venus? Sure it’s 900 degrees there. But by astronomical standards, when you talk about stars which burn at temperatures around ten million degrees, Venus could be the “Siberia” of the Milky Way. Why are there no creatures there which live in a 900 degree environment and drink sulfuric acid for nourishment

If some of this sounds a little facetious, it is not meant to be. Remember, we’re not talking about a Supreme Intelligence with a plan, design, and purpose, which would imply that life was put precisely where it was meant to be and nowhere else for reasons we may or may not fully understand. We’re talking about a mindless force of nature which purportedly creates life at random out of inanimate matter. What made life on earth so “feasible” and life elsewhere so “impossible?”

A PROBLEM IN LOGIC

To say that it is “difficult to explain” why life is in such abundance here on earth yet nonexistent elsewhere in the universe is just another case of sticking one’s head in the ground. Explaining why a cigarette lighter will not work underwater is only difficult for someone who for some insane reason remains convinced it will work in spite of all contradictory evidence. Why it will not work is not difficult to explain. The difficulty lies in explaining why one continues to believe it will work. Similarly, why there is no extraterrestrial life is not difficult to explain. Our space explorations have found the irrefutable answer: the process we call evolution simply does not work. The difficulty lies in understanding those who prefer to ignore the facts.

According to NASA, microorganisms were inadvertently taken to the moon by an unmanned spacecraft. When the equipment of this spacecraft was brought back to earth more than two and a half years later by our astronauts, it was discovered that an earth microbe had survived the lunar environment, which is harsher than the Martian environment. Obviously, for life to have thrived on extraterrestrial bodies there was no need for nature to even resort to biologically “strange” creatures. In spite of the hostile environments of these spheres, life forms with which we are familiar could have survived. Yet, these worlds show absolutely no signs of ever having been inhabited by any forms of life — normal or strange. So, where does all this leave evolution? Not on very solid ground.

A HOSTILE EARTH

Strangely, even earth today, which is considered a hospitable environment to present life forms, only gives that appearance superficially. It took a twentieth-century epidemic — AIDS — to make us aware of the true hostile nature of the very environment modern man thrives in. AIDS is caused by a virus which attacks the immune system and leaves the body susceptible to a host of deadly diseases which are caused by other viruses and microbes. AIDS accentuates the grim reality that earth today is so contaminated with deadly viruses and bacteria that were it not for a complex and ingenious immune system, the average human being, and probably a host of other living organisms, could not survive beyond infancy. Is outer space really more hostile than this? Hard to imagine. So why hasn’t life in outer space evolved and developed an immune system to ensure its survival? Hostile environments apparently do not deter life. Obviously, this process we call evolution is purely the product of imagination — it belongs in a Steven Spielberg movie, not in a science textbook.

by Josh Greenberger This has been an excerpt from his free book on evolution at EvolutionDead.com

African societies dating back to the ancient times relied on “the stars to predict the likelihood of rain, so they could prepare the land”[5] for planting, for migration (e.g. the Bozo people of Mali “migrate along the delta of the Niger river when the Pleiades transit overhead and begin their fishing season when the Pleiades leave the night sky”[6]) and navigation as well as for determining points in time, leading to the construction of megalith (large stone) observatories and the development of lunar-based calendars, all of which were critical since for them, “knowledge about the movement of the stars [was] a matter of life and death.”[7]

Accordingly the Moon and the stars had a special place in African societies. In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) “the Milky Way is called ‘God’s clock’ [since] it is orientated east-west during the wet season and… north-south during the middle of the dry season.[8] At the same time, in “central Nigeria… a strong correlation [is] observed between the tilt of the points on the crescent moon and rainfall. As points tilt to the right, dramatic increases in rain[fall occur and] as points tilt to the left, dramatic decreases in rainfall [occur].[9]

Two famous African megaliths that made use of astronomy are Nabta, built between 5500 B.C. and 3500 B.C. by Central African nomads in southern Egypt near the modern-day border with Sudan and Namoratunga II, which was erected in 300 B.C. (aligned to the 7 stars of the Borana calendar – Triangulum, Pleiades, Aldebarran, Belletrix, Orion, Saiph, and Sirius)[10] and stands near Kenya’s Lake Turkana. Based on archeological data, Nabta consisting of “stones aligned with the different rising positions of the Sun… (caused by the Earth’s rotation) [used] to determine the seasons”[11] is perhaps the oldest astronomical alignment in the world, 1,000 years older than Stonehenge. At the same time archeological finds indicate that the Mursi of Ethiopia and Kushites and Bambara of Sudan were also influenced by and “interested in horizon and zenith (sunrise and sunset) events”[12] as were the peoples inhabiting Benin, Togo, and Zimbabwe.

In Benin and Togo, “the Batamalimba people designed their houses such that their crossbeams [were] aligned to the equinox sunrise and sunset” while the Karanga people constructed “a chevron pattern bisected by the solstice Sun” in the Great Zimbabwe stone city that was built around A.D. 400 and completed about A.D. 1350 to mark “important astronomical seasonal events.”[13] In addition, the Pyramids of Meroë built in Kush (now part of Sudan) and the more than 1600 stone circles discovered to date in the lands comprising the Gambia, Senegal and Togo are likely further examples of African archaeoastronomy.

In conjunction with the construction of megaliths, African societies ranging from southern Africa to sub-Saharan northern Africa, also developed calendars based on the lunar cycle. The oldest such calendar, the Ishango bone, dating back to 6500 B.C. that “was found at the site of a fishing village on the shores of Lake Edward which borders the [Democratic Republic of] Congo (DRC) and Uganda”[14] and is believed to have been used for predicting tidal phenomena. At the same time, another early lunar calendar based on a series of concentric circles ranging in number from 29 to 30 was found in “certain caves in Tanzania.”[15]

Even today several African peoples use lunar calendars. Examples are the Borana of southern Ethiopia and northwest Kenya, the Mursi of Ethiopia, the Ngas of Nigeria, and the Dogon of Mali, each of whom either adds an extra month consisting of 11 days at the end of the year or a 33-day month at the end of each third year to compensate for the difference that arises from the 365.25 day solar year (period of time it takes the Earth to complete one revolution around the Sun) in which there are 12 lunar cycles (period of time ranging from the first rise of the new moon to the final setting of the full moon) consisting of 29.5 days each. The Ngas use the term “bergu” for each 29.5-day month and “gamwe” to describe the final 11 days that follow the 12th and last “bergu” of each year. In addition, some peoples in South Africa “still use the same word for month and moon”[16] because of their connotative relationship.

Because of their interest in the heavens and their attempt to create intelligible frameworks around them, Africans also developed myths and legends surrounding celestial bodies and constellations. “The Pleiades and Sirius figure largely in the star lore of the peoples of Mali and Ethiopia… The Milky Way… and Venus… are focused on all over Africa, while the Southern Cross is important to the Zulu, Sotho, and Tswana [peoples] of southern Africa and… recognized as a navigation constellation.”[17]

Examples of these African myths and legends are as follows: The Bushmen who inhabit southern Africa “believe the Milky Way was made by a Bushman girl who wished for a little light and threw wood ashes into the sky [creating] different colored stars by throwing different colored burning roots into the air. [There are also two other stories. One involves] two stars of the Southern Cross, Alpha and Gamma Crucis… The creator had two sons called Khanka and Khoma. One day the two boys went hunting with a family of lions, but the treacherous lions ate the boys. In his anger and despair, the creator made fire and hid it in a meteor disguised as an eland’s horn. The creator called down the meteor and it hit [and killed] the lion. [Afterwards the creator’s] heart was calmed and there was fire for everyone. Khanka and Khoma are Alpha Crucis and Gamma Crucis. [The next is about Pleiades and the three stars of the Orion Belt, in which] …seven daughters of the sky god (Pleiades) were married to a hunter. One evening [he] went hunting [for] zebras (the three stars of Orion’s Belt). He was such a bad hunter that his arrow missed, and because he was afraid of the nearby lion (Betelgeuse, another star) he left the arrow where it lay (now known as Orion’s sword). [Afterwards, being] …too embarrassed to [return] home to his wives because he did not have meat to bring to them, …he [stayed] out… in the cold as the star called Aldebaran.”[18]

In addition to merely studying astronomy, developing lunar calendars, and creating myths and legends about the heavens, Africans also exchanged information and ideas with Islamic scientists following the establishment of protected trade routes in the areas encompassing Mali, Mauritania and Senegal. The peak of this exchange occurred during the rule of the Ghana, Mali and Songhay empires (c. A.D. 1200-A.D. 1591) when Islamic traders traveled to African cities in search of gold, the economic standard of their lands after Iranian scholar, Ibn al-Faqih al-Hamadhani wrote in c. A.D. 900:

It is said that beyond the source of the Nile is darkness and beyond the darkness are waters which make the gold grow… to the town of Ghana is a three-months’ journey through deserts. In the country of Ghana gold grows in the sand as carrots do, and is plucked at sunrise.[19]

During the height of this trans-Saharan trade, Islamic scholars established learning centers and introduced the written language, resulting in the creation of thousands of African books pertaining to astronomy and science.

However, it was not until late in the 20th century, some two decades after the United States and the now defunct Soviet Union (USSR) had begun their manned space programs, that descendents of these early African astronomers actually made it into space, much in part due to the efforts of Luke Weathers (b. A.D. 1920), a black World War II veteran with a degree in science and biology and others who had “pressured the U.S. military to train a corps of black pilots at Tuskegee Institute in Alabama… to prove that black Americans… could handle the most challenging… jobs.”[20]

This led to June A.D. 1967 when another pilot, Major Robert H. Lawrence, Jr. (A.D. 1935-A.D. 1967) with over 2,500 flight hours behind him, successfully completed the Air Force’s Flight Test Pilot Training School at Edwards Air Force Base in California and was named the first African-American astronaut. “Though he never made it into space”[21] dying on December 8th when the F-104 Starfighter piloted by a trainee whom he was instructing crashed, Major Lawrence had participated in the Air Force’s Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) Program, a project that “would eventually lead to today’s International Space Station.”[22]

Despite the setback, blacks were not going to be denied their place in space. Following the success of the Civil Rights movement, new opportunities emerged much in part due to improved education and equal opportunity chances. As a result greater numbers of blacks enrolled and were accepted into America’s space program.

History was made on September 18, A.D. 1980 when Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez (b. A.D. 1942), a Cuban of black-hispanic heritage was launched into space as part of the Soyuz 38 crew. “After docking with Salyut 6, Tamayo (a Cuban Air Force pilot) and [his partner Yuri] Romanenko (b. A.D. 1944) conducted experiments in an attempt to find [the cause] of space sickness, and… a cure.”[23] He spent 188 hours and 43 minutes in space before returning to Earth on September 26, A.D. 1980.

This was followed by the August 30, A.D. 1983 launch of Guion “Guy” Bluford (b. A.D. 1942), a U.S. Air Force Colonel who had majored in aerospace engineering and minored in laser physics, aboard the space shuttle Challenger on the STS-8 mission which lasted 145 hours. Upon entering space during the worlds’ first night launch, Guy Bluford became the first African-American astronaut to make the trip.

Afterwards Guy Bluford participated in three additional missions – STS-61-A (October 30-November 6, A.D. 1985 aboard Challenger), STS-39 (April 28-May 6, A.D. 1991 aboard Discovery), and STS-53 (December 2-December 9, A.D. 1992 aboard Discovery). During his career, Col. Bluford who retired from active space duty in 1993, amassed 28 days, 16 hours and 33 minutes in space. Since then Col. Bluford has been inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame (A.D. 1997) and “has spoken before many groups… where he serves as a role model,” all possible because his mother, a teacher, and father, an engineer, had encouraged him and his three brothers to “set their goals high” and because he ignored a school counselor’s advice to”learn a trade, since he was not college material.”[24]

The next black astronaut to make history was Dr. Mae Jemison (b. A.D. 1956), the daughter of a maintenance worker (her father) and teacher (her mother) who earned a BS in Chemical Engineering, a BA in African-American studies, and a doctorate in medicine. Notably, during her years in medical school and participation in the Peace Corps she had provided medical care to persons in Cuba, Kenya, Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Thailand.

When the space shuttle Endeavor was launched on September 12, A.D. 1992, Dr. Jemison became the first African-American woman in space. Following her 7 day, 22 hour, 30 minute mission aboard Endeavor as a mission specialist (STS-47 September 12-20, A.D. 1992), Jemison retired from space flight to found The Jemison Group “to research, develop and implement advanced technologies suited to the social, political, cultural and economic context of the individual, especially for the developing world.”[25] Yet despite her post NASA pursuits, Dr. Jemison in following the encouragement and support given by her parents, consistently encourages African-Americans to pursue scientific careers especially with the space program – “This is the one time when we can get in on the ground floor.”[26]

A third history making black astronaut was Dr. Bernard A. Harris, Jr. (b. A.D. 1956), a private pilot and flight surgeon with a doctorate in medical science and a master’s degree in biomedical science who had dreamed “to look down on the clouds” since he was 8. “I was watching what was happening with the space program, watching these guys go up… people called them American heroes. I wanted to be a hero too,” he declared when thinking back to the infancy of the U.S. space program.[27] On February 9, A.D. 1995, Dr. Harris became the first African-American to walk in space when he and astronaut Michael Foale (b. A.D. 1957) “made a five hour space walk to test thermal improvements in space suits and to hoist a 2,800 pound telescope that would aid… efforts to design [the] International Space Station.”[28] Afterwards, he reflected back to 1963, perhaps the most pivotal year in the Civil Rights movement (e.g. the march on Washington, D.C. where Martin Luther King, Jr. made his famous “I have a dream” speech in August, the Birmingham Church bombing a month later that martyred four young black girls, etc.) stating, “Those were some of the best times and worst times. Here on this planet we were fighting for human rights and at the same time we were sending men to the moon.”[29] Appropriately, Dr. Harris dedicated his space walk, which he described as “probably the most wonderful day of my life”[30] to “all African-Americans and to African American achievement.”[31]

During his astronaut career, Dr. Bernard Harris, Jr. took part in two missions – STS-55 (April 26-May 6, A.D. 1993 aboard Columbia as a mission specialist conducting “a variety of research in physical and life sciences”[32]) and STS-63 (February 2-11, A.D. 1995 aboard Discovery as payload commander) logging 18 days, 6 hours and 8 minutes in space. Like Bluford, Dr. Harris also serves as an inspiration encouraging “children of all races to follow his example – ‘Don’t be afraid to dream… Get… an education. Be willing to work hard. If you do these three things, there is nothing that you can’t do in life.’”[33]

In addition to the above-mentioned African-American astronauts, others have also pursued and made the journey to and from space. In the process, two – Ronald E. McNair, Ph.D. and Col. Michael A. Anderson, made the ultimate sacrifice – giving up their lives in quest of scientific exploration and discovery for the benefit of humanity. Summaries of these inspirational astronauts are listed below:

Lt. Col. Michael P. Anderson (A.D. 1959-A.D. 2003) amassed 24 days, 18 hours, and 8 minutes in space, participating in STS-89 (January 22-31, A.D. 1998 aboard Endeavor) and STS-107 (January 16-February 1, A.D. 2003 aboard Columbia). Tragically Lt. Col. Anderson lost his life when the “space shuttle Columbia and her crew perished during entry, 16 minutes before scheduled landing”[34] at Cape Canaveral.

Charles F. Bolden, Jr. (b. A.D. 1946) amassed 28 days, 8 hours, and 37 minutes in space, participating in STS-61-C (January 12-18, 1986 aboard Columbia), STS-31 (April 24-29, A.D. 1990 aboard Discovery), STS-45 (March 24-April 2, A.D. 1992 aboard Atlantis as the first African-American mission commander), and STS-60 (February 3-11, A.D. 1994 aboard Discovery).

Robert L. Curbeam, Jr. (b. A.D. 1962) amassed 24 days, 17 hours, and 49 minutes in space, participating in STS-85 (August 7-19, A.D. 1997 aboard Discovery) and STS-98 (February 7-20, 2001 aboard Atlantis).

Col. Frederick D. Gregory (b. A.D. 1941) amassed 18 days, 23 hours, and 4 minutes in space, participating in STS-51-B (April 29-May 6, A.D. 1985 aboard Challenger), STS-33 (November 22-27, A.D. 1989 aboard Discovery), and STS-44 (November 24-December 1, A.D. 1991 aboard Atlantis).

Ronald E. McNair, Ph.D. (A.D. 1950-A.D. 1986) amassed 7 days, 23 hours, and 15 minutes in space during STS-41-B (February 3-11, A.D. 1984 aboard Challenger). Tragically Dr. McNair perished along with the rest of the Challenger crew when the space shuttle exploded minutes after launch on January 28, A.D. 1986 for the STS-51-L mission.

Stephanie D. Wilson (b. A.D. 1966) who to date has amassed 12 days, 18 hours, and 36 minutes in space (STS-121 – July 4-17, A.D. 2006 aboard Discovery).

Based on the growing roll of African-American astronauts, which likely will include Joan Higginbotham (b. A.D. 1964) who is slated for launch this fall, the efforts of Dr. Beth A. Brown, a pioneering African-American astrophysicist, the creation of a “National Astrophysics and Space Science Programme” in South Africa consisting of a collaboration among the country’s “universities and research institutes [that focuses on] honors and masters students [to create a new generation of space scientists][35], and the A.D. 2005 debut of the 11-meter-wide South African Large Telescope (SALT) at Sutherland, “the Southern Hemisphere’s largest and most advanced telescope”[36] the black space experience can only grow richer as the future remains bright like the Earth’s shining star, the Sun.

The first Space Exploration started in 1957 with the launch of the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, sent into space by the Soviets. Since ancient times people have dreamed of leaving their home planet and exploring other worlds not known to man. Every era through out history has had a belief as to what the “heavens” are made form. The Greeks believed that the stars and space were made of a material called “Quitenses”, and other culture once thought that the stars were made of their peoples passed away.

We know now what stars are really made of; they are made of various gases that explode over and over again. Up until about 43 years ago people did not have the means to travel to or send objects into space. The hardest part of traveling into space was developing rockets that were powerful enough and reliable enough to boost an object into space.

Common heard of Space Exploration terms are Comets and Asteroid’s. A comet is basically small, rocky, and icy and revolves around the sun. When a comet passes close to the sun some of the ice turns to gas. This gas and some loose dust creates a long, bright tail that trails behind the comet.

If a comet was to hit the earth, it would cause some serious damage. As an example even if something relatively small in size hit the earth, it would cause great damage. Small from an comet’s point of size is around 200 metres in diameter and if this was to hit an ocean it would create devastation to all cities within a large radius.

Asteroid’s are described as small or minor planets that are members of the solar system and move in what are called elliptical orbits. They are usually found between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.